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Millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa rely on hand-pumped boreholes (HPBs) for their water supply, but they are often unreliable, with frequent breakdowns and long repair times. Although there have been previous attempts to understand the difficulty of access to water in rural areas and the functionality of rural water supply systems, they have typically taken ‘siloed’ approaches and focused only on the technical or social factors that influence the supplies’ performance.

A and local researchers in both Africa and the UK, shows that the failure of HPBs is not simply due to a single issue, such as a lack of water or a technical failure: it is the result of a combination of complex social, technical and physical interactions. The study provides crucial information for decision makers across governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and communities aiming to make rural water access more reliable.

The research found that the probability of any failure occurring is dominated by physical and engineering factors: a combination of water levels, the condition of the pump, aquifer yields, and borehole construction and configuration. The length of time the pump was out of action was dominated by social factors including demand, access to spare parts and financing. The project team, led by ���ճԹ�, tested current HPBs and facilitated interviews and participatory mapping events with water users and managers across Ethiopia, Malawi and Uganda. Combining statistical patterns of HPB failure with lived community experiences led to a new conceptual model that represents the diversity of real-world water-management arrangements.

This paper invites those working in rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa to consider infrastructure performance through an interdisciplinary lens. These complex interactions can be understood by using frameworks like the one proposed in this study to improve rural water supply performance, which is especially important as rural water systems evolve towards more complex solar and piped technologies.

It’s hoped that understanding these complex interactions around rural water supplies will help governments, NGOs and communities make rural water access more reliable and fairer for all.

Dr Donald John MacAllister, ���ճԹ� Senior Hydrogeologist the paper’s lead author

This research provides valuable insights into the interconnected drivers of water service downtime. Its findings come at a critical time as groundwater will continue to play a central role in meeting future water demand and strengthening drought resilience. Acting on these insights will be essential to enhance public and private sector support for water service provision through stronger regulation, improved planning, increased financing and enhanced service management.

Vincent Casey, WaterAid

The paper is now available online: