The ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Superficial Deposit Thickness Model (SDTM) dataset presents the modelled regional variation in thickness of superficial and unconsolidated deposits across Great Britain. These include sediments of fluvial, glacial, marine or anthropogenic origin that were generally formed during the Quaternary (the past 2.6 million years up to today). The thickness of these deposits signifies the depth down to the top of the bedrock, known as geological rockhead.

The distribution of these deposits is not uniform: sometimes they are thin veneers, sometimes they form large, irregular masses, and sometimes they infill entire valleys. The latest SDTM release, the first for over 15 years, includes a raster model of the elevation of rockhead for the first time, providing important data for a variety of different sectors.

The transition between superficial sediments and geological rockhead (and associated bedrock units) is an important zone for geologists, civil engineers, hydrogeologists and environmental scientists because it is where most physical and chemical properties of the deposits significantly change. Properties such as strength, lithology, conductivity, porosity and permeability can be strongly affected by this transition, so an understanding of the depth of the transition zone beneath the ground surface is vital.

The SDTM models have been created using digital mathematical interpolation techniques, combining observations of superficial thickness from borehole logs held in our archives with mapped superficial and artificial geology extents from the 1:50 000-scale digital geological map of Britain.

Version 8 of the SDTM includes the new layer, the rockhead elevation model (RHEM). This is a raster model of the elevation of rockhead relative to Ordnance Datum, the standard vertical reference system used in Great Britain to measure land elevation. This model provides users with an integer value of modelled depth to bedrock in metres and will be of particular use for creating 3D ground models and understanding the geological structure across a site.

The updated SDTM product also contains the observation driven model (ODM), the terrain adjusted model (TAM) and data distance (DataDist).

Observation driven model

The ODM is a raster model of sediment thickness that interpolates thickness values between boreholes within the mapped superficial extents, giving users an integer value of modelled superficial thickness in metres.

Terrain adjusted model

The TAM is a raster model of sediment thickness derived using a method that combines borehole records, the mapped superficial deposit extents and surface elevation data. This differs from the ODM by considering the ground surface elevation, derived from the model, and gives users an integer value of modelled superficial thickness in metres.

Data distance

DataDist is a raster surface defining the distance of any location relative to the nearest source of thickness information; either the location of a borehole or the mapped boundary of a superficial deposit. This is provided as a pseudo-uncertainty surface relative to the ODM, TAM and RHEM components of the SDTM. The further a location is from a source of thickness data, the more uncertain any values provided by ODM, TAM and RHEM models are likely to be.

New naming conventions

SDTM Version 8 has introduced new naming conventions for the ODM and TAM datasets. These name changes better describe the characteristics of the two datasets and removes confusion or implications relating to the terms ‘basic’ and ‘advanced’ that might imply one model is superior. Both model outputs provide valid options and should be considered in tandem rather than in isolation to understand the models’ constraints.

This dataset release marks an important development for the ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï SDTM and is its first update since 2010. Improved borehole selection criteria have been implemented, allowing the models to benefit from the latest interpretations of ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï-held borehole logs as well as identifying and excluding low-confidence, inappropriate and conflicting boreholes that may have been included in previous versions. As such, the borehole selection underpinning SDTM V8 is considered to be more robust, resulting in a higher confidence model.

Rob Shaw, geospatial analyst and SDTM product developer, ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï.

The intended scale of use of this dataset is 1:100 000, with an average vertical accuracy of +/-5 m elevation. The dataset is intended for use at national, regional and city scales, but not site scales where specific ground-investigation works should be undertaken to determine precise superficial thickness and rockhead elevation.

We are continuing our scientific research on to how to improve the prediction of superficial thickness and will build that into any future update of the SDTM.

For more information on the SDTM datasets, including how to access the data, please visit the STDM product webpage, download the or get in touch with ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Digital Data (digitaldata@bgs.ac.uk).

New research by ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï, in collaboration with Durham University and the University of Dundee, shows that the shallow seabed of the North Sea is more geologically complex than typically represented in current cable burial approaches. The findings have important implications for how subsea cables are routed, installed and safeguarded from natural and anthropogenic hazards such as erosion, dredging and ship anchor strikes. 

Subsea cables are critical infrastructure arteries, transporting vast quantities of data between countries and connecting offshore energy developments to the UK mainland grid. Due to the nature of their environment and the water depths involved, installing and protecting cables is expensive and logistically complex. This is especially true in the shallow waters around the UK Continental Shelf, where the risk of damage from external hazards is highest.

The most common protection method for subsea cables is burial within the seabed. Widely used guidance such as standard cable-burial risk assessment typically applies simplified, single-soil assumptions that do not fully reflect real-world geological complexity. However, sea-floor geological environments are highly variable, ranging from fine sediments and gravels to shallow bedrock. These differences mean that burial conditions can change over short distances, requiring site-specific understanding rather than a one-size-fits-all approach. Increasing burial depth alone does not necessarily improve protection; deeper installations can significantly increase costs and may introduce additional risks, including overheating of the cable.

As part of an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)‑funded project, ‘Offshore cable burial: how deep is deep enough?’, researchers have produced a new, . This is the depth range that is critical for cable burial and protection.

The study integrates over 12 000 geological records from ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï archives and the Crown Estate’s Marine Data Exchange, providing the most detailed regional picture to date of shallow subsurface conditions across the UK North Sea. The results show that layered soils are widespread, with most sites containing multiple layers of different soil types, often with sand overlying clay, gravel, peat or shallow bedrock.

The findings challenge the simplified, single soil assumptions that current risk assessments commonly use and highlight regional contrasts throughout the North Sea. For example, the southern North Sea is largely dominated by surficial sands, whilst the northern North Sea is more geologically variable. Thin gravel layers are widespread, with thicker layers and shallow bedrock occurring more locally, particularly in nearshore areas where burial constraints are greatest. Although less common, organic rich soils and peat are shown to occur mainly beneath thin sand layers where they are not visible from seabed sediment maps alone.

These variations influence how the seabed behaves during cable installation and can influence burial approaches. For instance, depending on the burial method used, coarse layers such as gravels can naturally increase resistance to penetration, whereas finer sediments may require erosion defences to be considered. On the other hand, shallow bedrock or other hard layers may limit achievable burial depths altogether and therefore need additional protection.

Alongside the geological analysis, the project conducted advanced physical and numerical modelling led by the University of Dundee and Durham University, respectively. The research demonstrates how anchors interact with different soil profiles, highlighting the importance of realistic ground models for predicting cable performance and reducing installation risk.

Together, the findings provide stronger evidence for early stage cable-route planning and risk screening, and could help inform future updates to cable-burial approaches. By moving beyond simplified seabed classifications, the project enables industry and regulators to make more informed decisions about where and how deeply offshore cables should be buried.

Research by the British Geological Survey has been essential in defining the seabed conditions that must be considered when assessing the anchor‑strike risk to subsea cables. From a numerical modelling perspective, this project represents the culmination of 12 years of advancing the material point method (MPM) for large‑deformation soil/structure interaction. It has delivered a suite of robust, reliable and genuinely predictive modelling capabilities that go beyond what is possible with commercial software. We hope the project’s findings will advance current cable-burial risk assessments by allowing realistic variations in seabed conditions to be captured within the anchor penetration prediction part of the framework.

Prof Will Coombs, professor of computational mechanics in the Department of Engineering, Durham University.

Our work shows that layered seabed conditions are widespread and therefore represent a crucial consideration for decision makers. Improving how we represent and contextualise this variability is key to making better early-stage decisions about cable routing, particularly for more complex projects.

Catriona Macdonald, marine geoscientist, ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï.

From a physical modelling perspective, this project has enabled world-first research, including tracking models underground using wireless technologies. This allows us to better understand how anchors respond to geological complexity and real cable installation environments. This has enabled us to create important datasets and evidence to inform to the next generation of computer-based simulation techniques. Working with ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï has helped us frame our investigation to cover the real-world geological complexity of the North Sea.

Prof Michael Brown, Chair of geotechnical engineering at the University of Dundee.

The approach may also have wider applications in other regions exposed to more complex geohazards, including sediment mobility, submarine landslides, volcanic activity and seismic risk, supporting improved resilience of critical offshore infrastructure.

The , along with its accompanying modelling outputs, marks a key milestone in improving our understanding of shallow seabed conditions. It provides a foundation for future work on standardising offshore data and improving cable-burial assessments across the North Sea and the wider UK Continental Shelf.

In chemistry student Dorontina Domi’s first couple of months of her placement at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï, she has rotated between different laboratories including organics, collagen extraction and modern environmental gas analysis. This has provided her with a broad experience of the different instruments and sample preparation techniques that are required within ½ñÈճԹϒs Stable Isotope Facility (SIF). In this blog, Dorontina tells us about some of her experiences so far. 

Carbon and nitrogen isotopes in organic materials

A wide array of instruments in the SIF can be used to analyse the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) isotope composition of organic materials found in sediments, soils and plant materials. The bulk of the analysis is carried out using an Elementar isoprime precisION isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) with a vario ISOTOPE cube elemental analyser (EA). The samples are combusted in the EA and are then passed onto the IRMS on a continuous flow of helium carrier gas, selected for its inertness and separation efficiency for measurement.

While learning sample preparation, I gained experience in using microbalances to weigh samples down to 200 micrograms (or 0.0002 grams), which is a miniscule amount that is challenging to see with the naked eye. I compacted the weighed sample material into either crucibles or capsules, depending on the instrument and their auto sampling methods.

When analysing these sample materials for C isotopes, it is important to understand whether the results are representing organic or inorganic C fractions contained in the material. Organic carbon consists of compounds sourced from living organisms and their remains, and inorganic carbon, such as from carbonates, is formed from biological and geological processes. The two forms of C have very distinct isotope compositions (inorganic C typically has more carbon-13 compared organic C) and even a small amount of inorganic C contamination in samples can offset target organic C isotope values.

Samples must therefore be treated to remove inorganic C prior to isotope analysis. I acidified samples using hydrochloric acid (HCl) and rinsed them with purified water, using a centrifuge to ensure thorough washing, until the pH tested neutral. This process dissolves the inorganic C fraction and isolates the organic C fraction.

SIF houses 13 mass spectrometers, so I have also gained experience in how staff conduct maintenance, such as on the Elementar IRMS. I assisted in replacing the consumables to ensure that the analyses are performed with a high precision and accuracy.

Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotopes in prehistoric bone samples

Comparing carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotope ratios from carnivores and their prey allows us to distinguish the palaeo-diet of animals and the of different species. This allows us to interpret their relationships during different ages and draw inferences from the data on changes associated with climate differences. For example, the higher the nitrogen isotope composition (δ¹⁵N) the more ‘carnivore-like’ feeding habits took place, therefore the main prey for each species can be identified.

Statistical tools called Bayesian mixing models will be used as a framework to integrate the large proportion of data from throughout modern and Pleistocene times and to infer the relevant data. Through this, the project will assess how changes in climate and environment influenced the feeding behaviour of the wolves and their resilience during reductions in prey availability. This information is crucial to understand the influence climate change will have on the endangered species in the future and help conservation strategies.

As part of the sampling programme, I was given an opportunity to spend a day at the laboratories in London, where I observed the meticulous drilling process used to cut small pieces of material from a variety of different fossil species for later analysis. The samples were cut from areas that will minimise damage of the structural integrity of the bone for conservation purposes.

As well as fossil samples, the project is also analysing contemporary wolves from Croatia and their prey as a comparison. These samples are less than 100 years old and required an initial solvent treatment in the geomicrobiology lab before collagen extraction could begin.

I have also helped to prepare the samples for isotope analysis, where a multi-step process takes place to extract the collagen, before it is purified and analysed via the EA-IRMS.

Carbon isotopes in methane samples

Another aspect of my training covers analysing methane (CH₄) gas samples for their carbon isotope composition using a Sercon HS2022 with CyroGas.

This instrument works by purifying the sample gas via carbon dioxide (CO₂) traps and a cryogenic gas trap to remove any other sources of carbon present that are not from CH₄, thus reducing potential sources of contamination. The sample gas then flows through a combustion tube, where the CH₄ is converted to CO₂ and cryogenic trapping takes place, ensuring that the CO₂ is concentrated in the final trap and can be released to the mass spectrometer rapidly. This allows for a narrow, sharp peak that can be analysed and replicated with a high precision. I also hope to help with the analysis of hydrogen (H) isotopes via the pyrolysis of CH₄ to H₂.

Working at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï as a student

If you are an undergraduate student looking for an opportunity within stable isotopes, I highly recommend ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï. Not only is it the largest UK producer of stable isotope data, but it is also a supportive workplace to be a part of. There are a variety of clubs to involve yourself in such as the ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Wilding Group. Staff and volunteers maintain the natural areas at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï to promote wildlife biodiversity, as a commitment to sustainability.

I would like to extend a massive thank you to everyone at the Stable Isotope Facility for welcoming me with such support and excitement. It has been an incredible start to the placement and I am looking forward to the rest of the year!

About the author 

Dorontina Domi is an undergraduate chemistry student at the University of Surrey, completing her industrial placement at SIF, which is located at ½ñÈճԹϒs headquarters in Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. 

The lowland tropical rainforests of South-east Asia are complex ecosystems best known for their evergreen forests dominated by the towering dipterocarp trees and unique wildlife. The rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems on the planet due to climate change, deforestation, logging and agriculture. Many key areas of South-east Asia are also located on the tectonically active Pacific Ring of Fire, which consists of a ‘ring’ of active volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions can be explosive, caused by pressure that has built up over time sending ash, rock and gas into the atmosphere. These eruptions can have an immediate destructive impact on the surrounding environment, negatively affecting forest systems; however, volcanic ash also contains nutrients such as phosphorus, which is essential for plant growth and productivity.  

Ancient environmental DNA

To understand the response and recovery of these tropical forest systems after a volcanic event, I am using lake-sediment cores to explore past records of volcanic activity and forest productivity.  

Lakes act like stores of environmental information, as the sediments found on lake floors are composed of organic and inorganic materials that have accumulated over time. These sediments can provide insights into past nutrient dynamics through geochemical analysis. By extracting ancient environmental DNA (aeDNA), which is genetic material derived from plant material and cells from animals and microorganisms, we can discover how forest biomes have responded to environmental change over time.  

Ancient environmental DNA is typically highly degraded, vulnerable to hydrolysis and oxidation, and easily contaminated by modern DNA. It is therefore crucial to work in a clean environment where the risk of contaminating the samples is minimal.  

Sample handling 

Before splitting the lake sediment core and subsamples for aeDNA extraction, it was first radiographically scanned at the Core Scanning Facility at the ½ñÈճԹϠcampus in Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. Radiographic scanning was also carried out to identify past volcanic events without opening the core, to avoid any potential contamination. I then travelled with the lake sediment core from ½ñÈճԹϠto the Globe Institute, part of the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences of the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, which specialises in geogenetics, for aeDNA extraction. 

The institute is located in the heart of Denmark’s capital city. It is surrounded by the Botanical Garden, the National Gallery for Arts, and the King’s Garden, where Rosenborg Castle is located. On arrival, you are met by one of the largest iron meteorites in the world, before entering the Centre for Geogenetics, where the clean aeDNA laboratories are.  

A strict protocol must be followed to avoid any form of modern contamination when working in these laboratories. This includes wearing a full protective outfit consisting of a hazmat suit, face mask, gloves, overshoes, extra protective sleeves and an extra pair of gloves. After suiting up for working the in laboratory, everything must be cleaned in bleach (and washed in ethanol afterwards). The selected samples and all laboratory equipment are then placed in a special clean fume hood, where the aeDNA can be extracted and prepared for sequencing.  

The core was not cut open until it arrived at the Globe Institute, where aeDNA samples were taken at 1 cm intervals using sterile syringes. The samples were taken from intervals pre-eruption, right after the eruption, and several intervals post-eruption, to help understand the forest system’s response to volcanic events. The selected samples were incubated overnight and purified the next day, after which the concentration was measured. Finally, the samples went through another preparation process, the crucial step that converts raw DNA into a library of adapter-ligated, standardised fragments that have been amplified to ensure enough copies are available for genetic sequencing.  

Next steps 

While the prepared DNA samples are awaiting sequencing, the final work for geochemical analysis and stable isotopes measurements is being completed at ½ñÈճԹϒs laboratories back in Keyworth. These analyses will help explore the history of past nutrient inputs from volcanic events and improve our understanding of how such inputs influence the tropical rainforest system.  

Copenhagen, Denmark 

From working intensely in the laboratories to exploring the city surrounding the Globe Institute, I enjoyed my time in Copenhagen. It’s a vibrant city known for its blend of historic charm and modern design, exceptional cycling culture and world-class food. The city offers attractions like Tivoli Gardens, Amalienborg Slot (the royal castle), Nyhavn and Free Town Christiania, which are, in my opinion, places you must see while walking around with a Ristet med det hele (a hot dog with the works) and a cocio (Danish chocolate milk). And of course, you can never go wrong by entering one of the many bakeries to make the impossible decision of which pastry to choose… 

Thanks 

A big thank you goes to Dr Ana Prohaska for hosting me at the Globe Institute, training me in new skills in molecular biology, and giving me the tools to help me understand the processes of the work. Another big thanks must go to the rest of the team at the Globe Institute for making me feel a part of the group, even though I was only there for a short amount of time.  

½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï has developed a new, national-scale, offshore dataset that shows the distribution of previously interpreted Quaternary rock layers in the shallow subsurface of the UK continental shelf.

The ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Offshore Quaternary 250K dataset comprises a compilation of legacy ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï 1:250 000 Quaternary geology map sheets, which were first published in the late 1980s to early 1990s. Large areas of the UK offshore are covered at a scale of 1:250 000 and this is the first time these map sheets have been digitised and merged together.

The dataset is made up of vector polygons, each representing an area where a particular formation has been mapped. The legacy map sheet interpretations have not been modified during the digitisation; they are presented in their original form and have been ‘mosaiced’ together as a single digital product.

The dataset will help users, particularly those in the offshore renewables sector, to understand the stratigraphy that was mapped historically in a particular area and can be used for reference when completing site investigations.

The principal drive behind this release is to make original 1:250 000 map data available in a digital format. Although work to refine Quaternary stratigraphical frameworks is ongoing, the map compilation is not informed by new data or analyses.

The Offshore Quaternary 250K dataset is the first time that these legacy offshore map sheets will be digitised, making it easier for users to access the data than ever before.

Andrew Dyson, marine geoscientist at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï.

In 2023, ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï entered into a data-sharing partnership with to enhance understanding of the seabed and shallow subsurface conditions across the United Kingdom continental shelf . The partnership granted ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï access to Ossian’s extensive survey data, with the development set to become one of the world’s largest floating wind farms.

In total the lease area covers 858 km² and is located 84 km off Scotland’s east coast. Once glaciated and now submerged at approximately 72 m depth, the site offers a unique opportunity to investigate offshore stratigraphy and geomorphology in a region undergoing rapid environmental and industrial transformation. It also allows researchers to compare findings to Ossian’s parent company ’ other projects in the Firth of Forth: and .

As part of the project, ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï scientists hosted a dedicated workshop attended by members of the Ossian project team, which included a mini-field trip day in Midlothian close to the ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï office in Edinburgh. The field trip allowed the project teams to explore similarities to geological features found onshore and discuss the broader implications for interpreting offshore survey data. By examining glacial deposits, meltwater channels and till sequences in a terrestrial setting, geoscientists can refine offshore geological models and reduce uncertainty in infrastructure design.

A key example observed during the field trip was the heterogeneity of the sediments across relatively small areas, with notable variations in grain size, composition and depositional structure. These complexities mirror the variability of ground conditions found offshore and highlight the importance of detailed site characterisation when planning and constructing marine infrastructure.

To help contextualise the offshore data, the field trip explored several key geological sites in Midlothian, each offering valuable insights into glacial processes and sedimentary environments similar to those observed beneath the sea.

Auchencorth Moss: Black Burn exposure (Local Geodiversity Site)

Auchencorth Moss is an extensive, peat-covered plateau dissected by small streams and drainage channels. The , where a tributary joins the River North Esk near Penicuik, features an exposure of three distinct glacial tills with varying physical characteristics and compositions. Though partially obscured by slope wash and vegetation, the upper sections remain visible and accessible for study. The exposure reveals how glacial processes deposited and reworked sediments, which act as a useful analogue for interpreting stratified units offshore.

Carlops meltwater channel

There is a classic example of a subglacial meltwater channel systems at , a Geological Conservation Review Site and partially a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).

The bedrock-cut channels at Carlops exhibit braided forms, rock islands and chute features. These geomorphological structures help explain the beneath ice sheets, which are also evident in offshore channel features. The site also provides a good opportunity to emphasise the scale of channel features, helping to conceptualise the variability of the offshore landscape.

Hewan Bank

, an SSSI located close to Roslin Glen, presents a textbook sequence of two tills overlain by sands and gravels. The locality has been used to construct the regional glacial stratigraphy for the Edinburgh and Lothians area.

The debate over whether these represent separate glaciations or complex depositional environments mirrors the interpretive challenges faced offshore, where seismic and core data must be carefully analysed to distinguish between similar units. The wider Roslin Glen area, known for its meltwater gorge and incised meanders, also illustrates the erosional power of glacial meltwater and the formation of geomorphological features that can be traced in offshore bathymetry and sediment records.

Collaboration

The collaboration between Ossian, SSE Renewables and ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï provides important new data that is being used to update baseline geological models for the Central North Sea and the Firth of Forth. These feed into ½ñÈճԹϒs publicly available offshore maps and datasets, which support a wide range of users including developers, regulators, researchers and marine planners. Integrating data from offshore wind farms such as Ossian with existing geological frameworks will help to guide future offshore developments and promote the sustainable use of marine resources.

This initiative also builds on ½ñÈճԹϒs longstanding relationship with Ossian joint venture partner SSE Renewables and highlights the value of sustained collaboration in delivering large-scale renewable energy projects. The Ossian floating wind farm, which is a joint venture between SSE Renewables, and (CIP), is set to deliver up to 3.6 GW of renewable energy, enough to power 6 million homes and offset up to 7.5 million tonnes of carbon emissions, marking a significant step forward in the UK’s journey to net zero.

About the author

Catriona Macdonald
Margaret Stewart

Characterising the distribution of seabed sediments (SBS) is critical for a wide range of applications, including:

• habitat mapping
• marine ecosystem science
• mineral and aggregates assessments
• offshore infrastructure siting and monitoring
• defence
• shipping
• coastal management

½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï has developed the new national-scale ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Predictive Seabed Sediments (UK) dataset aimed at supporting these applications. The dataset comprises four digital maps that portray SBS composition, including a classified map of sediment types, as well as the predicted proportions of gravel, sand and mud across the UK continental shelf.

These detailed maps are based on about 40 000 sample measurements, as well as numerous physical covariates that relate to the spatial distribution of SBS. They were generated with the assistance of machine learning.

Understanding the nature of the seabed is fundamental for many offshore activities, from understanding benthic habitats and carbon stores to effectively designing and installing offshore infrastructure, including wind turbines and submarine cables.

Seabed sediments lie at the interface between the water column above and the variable geological substrate below. To an extent, they can be considered similar to the soil layer on land, but offshore sediments are exposed to dynamic marine conditions and are therefore potentially transitory and mobile over variable timescales, for example, during tidal, seasonal and storm cycles.

We hope that the release of the new ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Predictive Seabed Sediments (UK) dataset will provide a useful free resource for many users, including researchers, developers and marine managers.

Dayton Dove, marine geoscientist at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï.

The ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï Predictive Seabed Sediments (UK) dataset is now freely available to download under the Open Government Licence (OGL) and can be used in combination with other thematic ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï 250K datasets that are also now available via OGL, such as bedrock geology. It can also be used with our more recently produced, high-resolution seabed geology mapping.

The Joint Nature Conservation Committee provided initial co-funding and supported this project.

Located on the border of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, is an enclosed limestone gorge surrounded by woodland, meadows and a lake. It has many caves and fissures containing prehistoric fossils and artefacts and is an area of interest to many scientific communities. The Victorians first discovered ancient artefacts in the cave sediments in the 19th century and, since then, scholars have been excavating the caves to answer pressing palaeontological and archaeological questions, and recreating fascinating stories of life during the last ice age, between 50 000 and 11 700 years before present (BP). 

The Cresswell Crags Museum

The objects excavated from the caves at Creswell Crags and from the wider Creswell Heritage Area are stored in the Creswell Crags Museum, which holds a collection of nearly 40 000 objects, approximately 80 per cent of which are bones. The palaeontological collection is composed of subfossils that date back to the late Pleistocene (125 000 BP) and include the remains of a large range of mammal, bird, amphibian, fish and mollusc species.  

In addition to being used for exhibition display, the fossils from Creswell Crags Museum’s collections are used for research purposes. ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï is currently collaborating on one such research project, the NERC-funded ‘Nature of the beast’, with Prof Danielle Schreve at Royal Holloway, University of London. The project is investigating past and present diets of European wolves. 

Why are we studying wolves and their diet? 

Wolves are one of the northern hemisphere’s top predators, keeping populations of their prey in check and positively influencing overall biodiversity through their activities. However, the wolf (Canis lupis) is an endangered species in Europe and concerns exist as to the viability of European wolf populations as environmental and climate conditions change. The overarching aim of the ‘Nature of the beast’ project is to assess the effect of forcing factors such as changes in climate, environment, the prey community and carnivore competition on the feeding behaviours of wolves. 

One of the best ways to investigate the adaptability of any animal, including wolves, is through the study of their dietary behaviour. Diet is closely linked to climate and environment, which determine the available prey species and which predators are competing for resources on those same landscapes. This project employs a multi-proxy approach that combines dental microwear texture analysis, isotope analysis, cranio-dental morphology and analysis of scat to reconstruct wolf diets from the late Pleistocene and throughout the Holocene (the current warm period). 

Dental microwear texture analysis

Dental microwear textural analysis (DMTA) is a way of investigating features on the biting surface of teeth. DMTA uses three-dimensional technology to image the tooth surface, which can be measured with specialised software in an unbiased way that is independent of human observer errors. Once measured, tooth surface features can show the extent to which carnivores are consuming meat or processing carcasses more fully, in other words, assessing the flesh-to-bone ratio of their diets.  

One way to think about how we analyse dental microwear is to consider animals that populate the extremes of the carnivore dietary behaviour continuum today. For example, the spotted hyena consumes a lot of bone as part of its natural behaviour; on the other hand, the cheetah primarily consumes flesh and prefer fresh kills.

Wolves fall on this spectrum somewhere between hyenas and cheetahs, and are known to flex their diet according to their surroundings. Observations from modern wolves have shown that they do consume some bone and prefer greasy, less dense, marrow-rich bones. Dental microwear studies of modern and ancient wolves confirm this dietary behaviour.

However, when unable to access their preferred prey species (likely due to limited prey availability in their surroundings) wolves scavenge more intensively, resulting in dental textures that indicate elevated amounts of bone in their diet. Scavenging is part of the flexible dietary behaviour of wolves, which is reflected in their dental microwear and can inform our understanding of past environmental conditions, such as the size and availability of prey species.  

Initial project results  

A key goal of this research is to understand how wolves have adapted to changing circumstances in the past, so that current and future conservation policy can be appropriately tailored. Preliminary results have shown that, when temperatures were colder, the dental microwear of wolves indicates high flesh consumption. Inversely, when temperatures were warmer, wolves increased scavenging behaviour (consuming more bone). 

Creswell Crags Museum’s collections hold fossil bones of wolves dating back 40 000 years. Some of these fossils were discovered due to a rock fall near the Dog Hole cave in 1978, along with bones of a diverse range of other animals including lynx, cow, horse and wild boar. They have since been used to provide evidence of a complex sequence of prehistoric animal occupation within the area. 

Three individual wolves have been analysed for dental microwear and represent one glacial and one interglacial period. The results from Creswell Crags will be combined with data collected from other museum fossils across the UK, including the collection housed at ½ñÈÕ³Ô¹Ï, and spanning the entirety of the late Pleistocene to the Holocene.  

About the authors

Dr Diksha Bista

Dr Angela Lamb

Dr Amanda Burtt (Royal Holloway, University of London) 

(Creswell Crags Museum and Heritage Centre) 

Prof Danielle Schreve (Royal Holloway, University of London)